Then, if I am convinced of this new truth, it may change my whole personality, which means that my feelings and my beliefs will be transformed. We speak of the ‘heart’ or the ‘guts level’ which are being touched. It is also here that faith has its seat. Therefore, this domain is of great importance for all religious instruction and also for TEE.

It includes up to five steps:
•  receiving a new message (not only taking note of it, but being willing to pay attention);
•  responding to the message (superficially - or with some appreciation - or with full understanding of its meaning and implications);
•  valuing the message (the new idea is accepted and internalized as something worthwhile, with different degrees of worth given to it:

                         - agreeing to its value
 - or preferring it to formerly held values
 - or    committing oneself to it);

            •  organization (the new conviction is given a place in your own life - or a new order and new priorities are set in your own life on basis of the new conviction);

            •  characterization (the new conviction influences the character of the person: it is
            reflected in consistent behaviour and habits, or even the whole person is
            controlled by the new values).
All this is the domain of emotions, values and personality (BEING).
 

1.3       Psycho-motor or skill domain
This is the area in which words are translated into action, theory into practice, abstract knowledge into practical skills, convictions into movement. Here not only the mind and the emotions, but also the muscles are involved: hands, feet, mouth and other parts of the body; that’s what is meant by the word ‘motor’ in ‘psycho-motor domain’.

This includes:
•  practising skills - starting from simple manual activities to very complex skills;
•  mastering the skills necessary for a certain work or profession;
•  learning to control one’s own behaviour: to act appropriately and to interact with others in acceptable and effective ways.
In other words: it is the domain of practical application (DOING).

 2.   The three Ways of Learning in TEE

It is evident that TEE uses three approaches: self-study, discussion and practice. As we compare these approaches with the three domains of learning, we will easily discover that each of them has its emphasis in a different domain. But there is also considerable overlapping.

You are probably acquainted with the illustrations of TEE as a fence or railway line: the two rails ‘Bookwork’ (self-study) and ‘Field Experience’ (practice) are connected through ‘Seminars’ (discussion meetings) as the poles or ‘sleepers’ (Holland p.10, Thornton p.11 and 12). An African equivalent would be the three-legged stool. The meaning of all these pictures is: all three ways of learning belong together and support each other. All are equally important to achieve satisfactory results.

When writing TEE materials we should be aware of these relations. Let us look at them in more detail now.

2.1       Learning by working through self-study materials
Here learning takes place as the learner reads or hears new information, understands it and then reacts to it.

>          New input (information, stimuli) and explanations presented by the author of the book or teaching material are the first important ingredient of self-study materials. The learner reads them. Whether he understands and then reacts properly to them or not is mainly a matter of the clarity of the presentation and the quality of explanations, examples and illustrations - and that is a question of the skills of the author. If the learners remember the issue later it is partly the result of impressing them and catching their attention. That is one of the tasks of the author.
Of course, the success depends not only on the author’s skills, but also on the willingness of the learner to receive the new teaching and to do his part, which is the required home-work.

>          Active involvement of the learner is the second important ingredient of self-study materials. It is the function of questions and tasks included in the teaching to get the learner to actively respond to it. Only if the learner is permanently involved in this way, will the new information impress him, be remembered well and used. So, the author will include stimuli (questions and tasks) which ask for a response from the side of the learner.
To write good questions and tasks, therefore, is as important as good input in the teaching.

>          Most of the learning affected through the self-study will be on the cognitive level. New concepts, rules, information and content can be transferred in this way. That is the strength of this approach. However, as the author makes the teaching interesting, he touches also the feeling of the learners and helps them to positively react to it. This means that the affective domain is also touched. As he gives suggestions and hints about how it can be put into practice, the psycho-motor domain also comes into operation.

 

2.2       Learning by discussion
The second way of learning in TEE is by the group discussion. Regularly, the participants meet in groups to discuss their studies. This is another important way of learning.

>          The aim of group discussion is not to get additional information, or to clarify unclear teaching. Of course there should also be room to correct misunderstandings. But the emphasis is on reflecting on what was studied at home, sharing reactions and experiences. The topics of the home-study are the basis and provide the themes of discussion. The purpose is to go beyond the cognitive level and to help the learners to make up their mind: either to accept or to reject the ideas presented in the study materials or to come to another conclusion.

>          Often the teaching will challenge traditional values or customary convictions of the learners. These will not be changed by one-time reading and private meditation. They need to be considered together with the other learners, pondered upon and seen from different angles. They must be compared with their own experiences and those of others. Only then can their former convictions be modified or changed and the new ideas be accepted or rejected. Here is one of the most important tasks of group discussion: to help all participants to make up their own mind.

>          The process of appropriating new ideas and pondering upon their consequences for one’s own life is the affective side of learning. While it is mainly the task of the group leader (tutor) to help the learners in this process by preparing helpful questions and leading the discussion, the authors of  TEE materials will already show the way and start the process of reflection by including suitable questions and tasks. Sometimes they will write: “Discuss this question in the group.“ In such a way, also the self-study materials will contribute to the affective learning process. But the authors can ensure that most of this side will be taken care of in the discussion group.

>          Another important task of the group discussion is to receive feed-back from the field experience and to help reflect on it. That is necessary in order to help the participants to cope with successes and frustrations. This task, which is again in the affective domain, will be touched on in the next section.

2.3       Learning by practising
The third way of learning in TEE is by field experience or practice in the home congregation. The participants are expected not only to study at home and discuss in the group, but also to test what was learned there. Without this practice, the learning process will be incomplete.

>          As we saw earlier, practising has more than one aspect. It helps learners to  remember the teaching, because we remember best what we do. It helps them find out if the new knowledge is helpful and worth incorporating into their own lives. Also it shows to the participants as well as to the congregations their strength and their weakness.  This helps both to find out their gifts and the areas in which they can contribute best to the strengthening of the congregation. Both the cognitive and affective aspects are part of this process.

>          But the main thrust is for the learners to improve their own skills and to use them for the benefit of the congregation. Skills may be in the field of witnessing, teaching, administration, or serving the physical needs of others.  The psycho-motor component is involved in each one of these skills, and this can be improved only by doing. Therefore, both study materials and group discussion should always lead to practice.

>          Field experience can lead to both encouraging and frustrating experiences. Sometimes the advise and tasks given will work well. In other cases they may end in complete failure. It is important that such experiences are taken up again in the group: The participants share what they experienced. In this way they can find out if the reasons of success or failure were due to the person or the circumstances, or if the whole idea was not applicable in their context. If all fail with the same approach, it is not helpful in that surrounding. If only a few have failed and others succeeded, the reasons could be different. In any case it is important to think about it - for future encouragement and for correction.

3.   Consequences for TEE Writing

In this unit we have compared the three domains of learning with the three ways of learning in TEE.

3.1       It is evident, that the main thrust of self-study lies in the cognitive domain, that of the group discussion in the affective domain, and that of the field experience in the psycho-motor or skill domain.

3.2       For TEE writing this mean that the materials will mainly provide the necessary information or input which is needed for the learners as the basis for their reflection and their congregational service. In other words: the main task of TEE materials is to help the learners to get the theological knowledge which will help them to serve in their congregation satisfactorily.

3.3       However, all three ways of learning in TEE are interconnected. None is exclusively limited to one domain, but there is quite a lot of interplay.

3.4       Therefore, also in the preparation of TEE materials, the authors will also keep the affective and the skill domains in mind when setting the objectives and in the questions and tasks. The objectives will always have in focus what the learners can do with it, and part of the questions and tasks will stimulate the learner’s own thinking and start the process of reflection.

4.   Where is the teacher?

We are used to it that learning needs a teacher. In schools and academic institutions we have teachers and professors who give instruction and guide the students. Where is the teacher in TEE? Is it the leader of the discussion seminar? Or where is he?

It is true, we have teachers also in TEE. But they are not the group leaders. It is important to note that it is not the task of group leaders to teach the group. Their task is to help the participants to learn from each other, to facilitate common learning. They do so by steering the discussion and giving the direction through their questions. But they are not expected to give instruction and to decide who is correct.

Actually, the teacher is hidden somewhere else: in the TEE materials. As we sometimes say: “in TEE, the book is the teacher“. Instruction - information or input as well as explanation - is found in the TEE books. If the books or materials are good, no additional explanations are needed in the group meetings. That means of course, that the real teacher is the author of the TEE book or TEE materials.

This can be a helpful guideline for the authors of TEE materials: that they see themselves as teachers who are to instruct the learners. As a good teacher, a TEE author will try to catch the interest of the learners, to give clear teaching and sufficient explanation, to connect the new teaching with what was previously taught and to look for application. As in the classroom, the author of self-study materials will put before the learners questions to ensure their active participation.  Of course, a good teacher will also sometimes have discussion in his class. That is not possible in self-study materials but is the task of the regular group meetings or seminars. But even then the way of leading discussions will differ from that in a classroom: the teacher is always the authority who has the last and decisive word, while a leader of the group discussion can allow the discussion to end without an authoritative statement. So, by and large the statement above is correct: In TEE, the book is the teacher.

We will come back to this sentence in later lessons.

Questions for reflection and discussion:

1.         In which ways are the three aims of learning - knowing, being, and doing - related to the three domains of learning?

2.         a.    What is the importance of the affective domain?
b.    Is it wise to overlook the affective side in learning if we want  people to put into practice what they have learned?
c.    In which way can the study material include the affective domain of learning?

3.         a.    Is it proper to put the skill of teaching into the psycho-motor domain (which is the domain in which the muscles are involved)?
b.    In which way is the skill (psycho-motor) domain incorporated in the teaching materials?

Assignment

Write 2 pages on: Why is the affective domain so important for effective learning?

Additional reading

Darnauer, Lyle, The Volitional Domain, in: Introduction to Programming, edited by M. B. Dainton, pp. 57-60

Mary Cableway, HCFTE Group Leaders Course, Unit 5

Popham & Baker, Establishing Instructional Goals, p. 48-49

UNIT  THREE   -   LEVELS  OF  LEARNING

In TEE, as in all good education, our main concern is that those who make use of the programme learn - not that we teach. Teaching is not an aim in itself - it is a means to make students learn. It has been said: “Nothing is taught until it is learned.“ To ensure that learning is taking place on the side of the participants is our chief aim. The degree to which it is, is the measurement of how successful our teaching was.

But just: what does learning mean? Or more to the point: how can we know that a person has learned something? If somebody says that he has ‘learned the Catechism’: does he know its words, has he understood its meaning, or does he use and apply its content in daily life? Here we have already three different categories: Knowledge, Insight, Application. Still these are pretty wide categories. E.g., ‘knowledge’ may mean different things, such as to recognize or recall, to be able to repeat the same words, or to explain an idea. It will help us to look at the different possibilities which are also termed ‘levels of learning’. To help us remember this concept more easily we count three levels each in the three main categories Knowledge, Insight and Application.

The ‘levels of learning’, when mastered by the learners, will be their ‘levels of competence’. If the learners are to sit for examinations at the end of the course, the test questions can be asked only on the levels which were intended and were taught properly.

The three x three levels are like steps leading to full mastery:

1.   Knowledge: Levels pertaining to learning facts, names and ideas

1.1       Recognition and Recall Level
Facts and words which were heard, or things and pictures which were seen earlier are recognized clearly (‘Yes, I know it - I have seen it once before!’). Or they are even recalled with the correct name (‘That is a map of Africa’).

            This level reflects a more passive kind of learning: it is taking notice of words and images without necessarily connecting them with others and reproducing them in context.
            Note:  Recognition and Recall may also be distinguished as two levels.

1.2       Memory Level
Names, facts, full sentences or even longer pieces (of poetry, music or others) are reproduced correctly from memory.

            This level reflects an active type of learning. Things read, heard or seen earlier have been stored in the memory, often by conscious memorization, in order to be reproduced word by word. It can include quite long and complex pieces of literature without necessarily implying that the text reproduced ‘by heart’ is also understood in its meaning and implications.

1.3       Concept Level
Words and concepts are described or defined correctly in their own words.

            Here we go beyond the reproduction type of learning. On this level, the learners are asked to show that they know the meaning of what they say, by using not just definitions which they have heard before, but by describing the matter in their own words or by giving examples or explanations. In other words: active processing of the information received is expected, though not yet complex.

2.   Insight:  Levels pertaining to learning complex ideas and matters

2.1       Comprehension Level
A story, message or teaching is understood from hearing or reading and is summarized in the learner’s own words; or it is translated from one language to another.

            While learning at concept level is concerned with isolated words and ideas, we go here into more complex processes. The task of comprehension requires the ability to find the inner progress of an event or a message and to bring it to a point, to distinguish between important and less important, to formulate more complicated relations or extended developments in short and precise statements. And in the case of the translation process, in addition to grasping the precise meaning, equivalents in the other language have to be found. In other words: comprehension requires a good understanding of the main gist or intention of an event or text.

 2.2      Association Level
New information is associated correctly with things learned or experienced earlier.

            At this level of learning, the former experience of the learners, their recognition and memory are challenged and they are asked to connect in their mind new teaching with former knowledge. This involves and stimulates a certain degree of creativity, and it helps the learners to interconnect the isolated pieces of information with their life. It also helps them to corroborate or to challenge their previous world view.

2.3       Analysis Level
Different points and aspects in the information and in arguments are distinguished, their relation to each other is made clear and their proper designation and value is described.

            This is an important step to the learners’ finding their own point of view. Here they are asked to find out the number of aspects or arguments and their relationship towards each other. They are asked to look for cause and effect relationship, for contrast and similarity, for important and less important, for fitting and not fitting arguments and connections. They are asked to weigh the arguments pro and contra. It helps them to see behind the words and find the real intentions, and it helps them to make up their own mind in this matter.
 

3.   Application:  Levels pertaining to proper use and to problem solving

Note:    Here we must distinguish between the mental preparation (‘thinking about’) and the actual performance (‘using’) as two different steps in each of the levels.

3.1       Application Level
The new information is translated into the learner’s own context and used in his own life.

            At this level the learners see how far the teaching was relevant for their own lives. Can it be used and applied also in the given context? Or must there be some adjustments and changes to make it practical for their own surrounding and life situation? Sometimes, the rules or suggestions or challenges in the teaching can be used directly. In other cases, they won’t work. At Application Level, the learners will see if the teaching is relevant for their situation and how it can be applied by them.

3.2       Synthesis Level
The new information is used to invent new ideas and to create solutions for new tasks.

            Often the direct application in similar tasks is possible. In other cases, new solutions to problems have to be found. The given suggestions or rules may be a starting point, but they don’t suffice. They have to be combined with others in order to give a good solution to a challenge. That is creativity: to bring together different components and ideas to create something new. It may be verbally in the form of a speech on a new topic, or an essay on unexpected developments, or a piece of art, or a new way of solving a practical problem.

3.3       Evaluation level
The usage of the information in direct application or creative solutions can be assessed; fair judgment on their own performance, or ideas and practice of others can be given.

            This is the level of critical judgment - be it on oneself or on others. Ideas, suggestions as well as practical performance are critically (or self-critically) observed and valued - on criteria given or self-established. Suggestions for improvement can be given. Reaching this level will help the learner to become both self-critical as well as self-confident; and it helps to see the performance of others in right perspective.

Questions for reflection and discussion

1.         Find appropriate questions and tasks for all 3 x 3 levels on the following topics:
John 3:16; The Good Samaritan; The Eighth Commandment.

2.         Which of the 3 x 3 levels are most important for learning through TEE? Why?

3.         The three ‘domains of learning’ and the three categories in which the ‘levels of learning’ are grouped are not directly related, but there are connections. Which ones?

4.         Why should learners who have to sit for examinations know from the start the intended level of competence?

Assignment

When writing a course on the Parables of Jesus, which place and weight should we give to the different ‘levels of learning’? Why? (1 or 2 pages)

Additional reading

Holland, Teaching Through T.E.E., pp. 27-29

Popham and Baker, Establishing Instructional Goals, pp. 52-54

Ward, Programmed Instruction, p.11

UNIT  FOUR  -  FORMATS AND  FEATURES
OF  T.E.E.  MATERIALS

In this unit we will try to get an idea about possible formats for TEE materials. To sum it up in a short sentence: all formats usable for self-study can be employed.

When TEE was started in 1963, the method widely used was Programmed Instruction. That has its merits, and some of its principles are useful for all instructional materials. However, basing on the behaviouristic philosophy of B. F. Skinner, it has been discredited as being a manipulative style of teaching. Certainly it is an excellent method for teaching facts and skills which are clear-cut and undebatable. When it comes to helping learners to reach own conclusions and to form an opinion, more open ways of self-study are preferable which allow for personal viewpoints and creative replies. That can be done by adding ‘open-ended’ questions for reflection to the otherwise ‘closed’ way of Programmed Instruction. (That has been done in the TEXT-Africa series, published by Evangel Press in Nairobi.) As an alternative, more open forms have been devised which use some of the principles of programming, but give room for one’s own questions and conclusions. Such forms are termed Semi-programmed materials and draw more on the humanistic approach of John Dewey (Battle p. 40-41).

A wide variety in formats has been developed for workbooks and worksheets which are basically semi-programmed. They provide blank space for student’s responses, and therefore workbooks need a lot of paper. They can be used also in TEE, but are employed less frequently as TEE programs usually have to economize.

In many cases the use of existing standard textbooks or other available printed materials is a good alternative. They can be accompanied by short study guides which lead the learners through their studies and ensure that the learning is interactive.

All these forms are options for self-study materials for TEE. All of them can give excellent instruction and stimulate the learners to put into practice what they have learned - if they are well prepared. A certain problem is that in some cases authors have just taken their notes, divided them by lines, added a few questions and then termed all of it ‘Programmed Instruction’. Some weak and questionable materials of this kind have discredited both TEE and Programmed Materials. Therefore, two sentences have to be underlined here:
            1.   TEE is not bound to Programmed Instruction.
            2.   Not all that looks like Programmed Instruction is really Programmed Instruction.

Now let us look at the different options in more detail.

1.   Programmed Instructional Material (PIM or PI)

Learning programs are self-instructional materials which lead the learners to a predetermined goal. They can be rendered in written form or in digital mode (as computer programs).

‘Programme’ (or ‘program’) means literally something ‘written before’ and usually refers to a plan which leads through an event to a certain aim. In learning and in computer language it means a series of logical steps which solve a problem or reach predefined learning objectives.

Materials known as PI (Programmed Instruction) or PIM (Programmed Instructional Material) follow certain rules which have to be employed in their preparation. They are carefully prepared step by step, meant for a special group of learners, and are tested by learners of the target group. If they look simple - which is sometimes what PI books are accused for - it is because they are meant for a special readership for whom this is appropriate. Whether they are easy or difficult depends on the level of the learners.

What makes PI different from other forms of self-instruction? There are three formal distinctive marks or features:

            (i)   PIM is ‘self-contained’;
(ii)  PIM reaches its lesson objectives in carefully planned ‘sequences’; and
(iii) PIM takes small steps called ‘frames’.

            Explanations:
(i)  ‘Self-contained’ means that all necessary teaching and explanations are included in the text. PIM usually does not refer to other instructional tools; exception in TEE: the Bible and dictionaries may be referred to.
(ii)   A ‘sequence’ is a series of small steps which belong closely together and build on each other (literally: ‘follow each other’, from the Latin ‘sequi’). They are also called ‘sets’. In a daily lesson, we usually have 2 to 4 sequences which deal with one aspect each of the topic of the day.
(iii) ‘Frames’ are the basic units or steps of which a sequence consists. The minimum number of frames is three; usually the sequence has five to twelve frames. - A frame has four components, abbreviated I-S-R-C:  

                        a)  Input or Information (the teaching);
            b)  Stimulus (a question or task);
            c)  Response (which the learner gives by reacting to the Stimulus; blank lines are
                 provided on which the learner can give his response);
            d)  Confirmation (being able to find out immediately if one’s response is correct.
                 The confirmation is found after a dividing line following the learner’s response.)

            Note: The term ‘frame’ goes back to the starting days of PI, when all four components (or the first three) used to be separated from each other by dividing lines, so giving
the small units the appearance of a series of framed paragraphs.

This format is a consequence of three basic principles for PI:

1)         There is the principle of active responding. In order to make sure that the learners are actively participating and give the needed attention to the teaching, it is interrupted frequently by questions and tasks. While the learners respond to the Stimuli placed before them, the main points of the teaching are impressed in their mind and memory. ‘Interactive learning’, as it is termed, helps the learners to come to deeper understanding and higher retention.

2)         There is the principle of minimal errors. As the learners react to the Stimuli, they should be able to find the right Response without too much trouble. Behind this is the observation of educational psychology that students learn better when they feel that they can cope with the tasks. That makes them happy and self-confident and improves the interest in learning. Therefore, only such questions shall be asked which can be answered by all who paid attention to the Input of the same or of former lessons.
In addition, care is taken not to give too much Input at a time, but rather to break it down in smaller bits. It depends on the subject and the level of the learners how small the bits have to be: In some cases it may be one or two lines only, in other cases it may be a full page. We speak of optimal teaching steps (optimal = the best possible). - What the best possible length of teaching steps is can be found out only by testing.

3)         Finally there is the principle of immediate knowledge of results. That is again an outflow of the observation that students learn better when they feel reassured that they are on the right track. Therefore, they get the possibility of checking their Responses after they wrote them down. That is why Confirmation (either the full correct answer, or ‘keys to the answers’) is offered - on the same page, or at another place in the book. The learners cannot wait for the next teaching session to find out if their answers were good. It must be possible for them to correct themselves immediately.

These principles led to the three distinctive marks of PI mentioned before: self-contained teaching materials, sequencing and frames. They also make three other things necessary for the preparation of materials:

*  clear objectives,
*  well organized, logical teaching, and
*  testing and improvement during the development of the materials.

Besides these principles and distinctive marks, PI makes use of other basic principles of teaching which are employed in all good teaching - be it oral or in writing:

(a)  The target group is well defined.  In order that the teaching meets the needs of the learners and is on the right level, it must be prepared with certain groups in mind.

(b)  Topics are clearly related to Objectives. Topics as well as objectives will be prepared for all levels of the teaching - the whole course, the different units, and all lessons. And they will be interrelated.

(c)  No Input without sufficient Explanation. In every lesson - except in revision lessons - there is some new teaching (input). It is advisable to teach one issue or point only in a lesson, or one main point with one or two side issues; too many points will confuse. But this one point must be well explained, and the frames with explanations should always be more and longer than the frames with the main teaching.

(d)  Integration or Association of new teaching in all lessons.  New teaching must be connected with previous teaching. While one topic builds on the other (‘from the known to the unknown’), the learners will be made aware of the relations and connections.

(e)  Application for all teaching.  The learners should be able to see or find out why and for which purpose the teaching can be useful.

(f)  Results are controllable.  The intended outcome is made known from the start, and ways are determined to give evidence that it is reached - by tests or other ways. In PI, the figure ‘90/90’ indicates the ideal outcome: 90% of the learners will give 90% correct answers. That presupposes careful testing in groups during the preparation of the materials. 

For PIM, testing during and after the preparation is indispensable. No material should be termed PI unless it is tested sufficiently.

2.   Semi-programmed Material (SPM) and Workbooks

Self-study materials which use some of the features of programming without fulfilling all of the above descriptions can be termed ‘semi-programmed’. SPM is more flexible and allows for more creativity and the learners’ own replies. Questions for reflection to stimulate their own thinking and decision will often be part of it.

While PIM is self-contained and has enough empty space for the replies of learners, SPM may give room for the answers also, or require a separate note-book. It may refer the readers to other books to supplement its own input. If ample space is given, and some creativity is asked for in the materials, they are also called ‘workbooks’; if handed out lesson by lesson, they may be called ‘work sheets’. (There is, however, no fixed terminology. You may find that other types of books which make students work are also called ‘workbooks’.)

SPM can also combine strictly programmed sequences with other styles. Different formats can be employed. The principle of ‘immediate knowledge of results’ is not always followed. There may be Confirmation for some questions which ask for knowledge, but for questions which ask for more complex tasks  there will be no clear-cut ‘key to the answer’.

SPM and Workbooks give more freedom both to authors and to learners. They are easier to produce and ask for more active participation than PIM, but may have the same good results - in some cases even be preferable.

3.   Textbooks & Companion Study Guides

The third possibility for self-instructional materials is the use of textbooks which are available and used in schools. They are often very well prepared and even include questions for revision and for reflection.

Students who are used to working independently can study such a book alone. But for most participants in TEE programs this is not advisable. They need some guidance which tells them what to study and in which order. They need regular questions and tasks to go with the teaching - not only at the end of the lesson - in order to learn actively. Such questions, after studying one or more paragraphs, help to see the main point in the teaching and to digest it better.

To meet this need, Companion Study Guides are prepared. They are Study Guides because they guide the learners through their daily studies and tell them what to do. Because they go together with textbooks and accompany them, they are termed ‘Companion Study Guides’. (Such a term is needed to distinguish them from other types of Study Guides.)

The Companion Study Guide may lead the learner through a whole Textbook, or it may ask him to study parts of it. It also gives the opportunity of supplementing the teaching of the Textbook.

When preparing the Companion Study Guide, we divide the teaching of the book into portions so that there is a portion for each daily lesson. If possible we allot a topic to all weekly portions, and also to the daily lesson. In addition we try to formulate objectives; often they are already clearly expressed, or at least implicitly included in the textbook. In any case, we add questions and tasks.

So, the following things should be found in the Companion Study Guides:

*  For all weekly units: topics, possibly with objectives

*  For the daily lesson:
-  Topic (and objective);
-   Introduction (with surveys and revision which helps to integrate the teaching into the whole course;
-   Advice for the study of this day;
-   Assignment (portion to be studied and questions or tasks to be answered);
-   Summary
-   Key to questions.

Textbooks together with Companion Study Guides ask the learners to work with two or more volumes. That is a bit more complicated, but learners get used to it quickly and may get as much profit from it as from a self-contained PI or SPM book. For the author it is much easier to produce a Study Guide to an existing Textbook than a complete course in SPM or PI format.

So, wherever good textbooks are available, they should be made use of, in order to economize the resources.

4.   Audio-visual materials

This group includes: tapes, CDs, videos, educational programs broadcasted via radio or TV, and all sorts of pictures (slides, movies, posters, drawings...).

They can be used in three ways: for illustration, for enrichment, or as main medium of instruction. The use of computers is a category of its own.

4.1   Pictures and drawings can clarify and illustrate teaching in books or notes. It is good if many of them are used also in printed media.

4.2   Sample lessons recorded in classroom or important addresses recorded at church gatherings can be used to enrich the teaching. They may be used at home (if equipment is available) or in the group meeting. It is advisable to give some variation to teaching in this way.

4.3  It is even possible to give a whole course mainly by tapes, usually accompanied by work sheets. Either classroom lectures are recorded and distributed in this way, or the teaching is designed for this medium. That can also refer to video tapes. These can be used in countries where all participants have the necessary equipment and can afford the costs of the tapes. For most countries in Africa it may not be an option.

4.4  With electronic technology and wider distribution of computers and internet, TEE can also be offered using this means. Teaching materials can be sent through internet - both printed teaching and audio-visuals. This may be more of an option for the future. During the next few years it will hardly be an alternative for most countries and TEE programmes in Africa.

For most TEE programs, audio-visuals will be carefully selected as illustrations and as enrichment material. Seldom will they replace typed and printed media.

5.   Which kinds of TEE materials are best?

Times are gone in which TEE was equated with PI. It has been proved that more open forms of teaching materials - SPM, Workbooks and Textbooks with Study Guides - are as useful as PI. In some areas they are even better. In any case they are easier to produce.

Which form is best depends on the situation, target group and subject which is taught. It also depends on the availability of suitable materials. Wherever a good textbook is available, using that is a good alternative which should be investigated.

Before deciding which form we use for a new course, we should ask:

*           What is the aim of the course? Is it to pass on knowledge (of a Bible book, or of facts)? Or skills and habits (how to interpret a text, how to prepare a message...)? Then PI is a viable option. Is it to make participants consider their situation, find their own viewpoint and contextualize their findings? Then SPM is preferable.

*           What is the subject area? Does it include a lot of  information and data, like Church History or History of Theology? Then a Textbook with a Companion Study Guide is a good means to convey the teaching. If it is more in the area of Practical Theology, PI and SPM can also be considered.

*           What is the educational background and level of the learners? For learners at the stage of functional literacy (which says nothing about their mental abilities, only about their schooling background) it will be hard to write long answers. For them, PI or SPM asking only for brief replies is the best. On the other hand, learners on post-secondary level (12th grade passed and above) may be able to work with a Textbook even without an accompanying Study Guide.

*           Which materials are already available? It will not be good stewardship of resources if a usable book exists and we start to write a new one. Whatever is available should be checked as an alternative. Even if it needs a lot of adjustment, it could at least be used as a model or as a source.

*           Which resources are available for preparation of materials? It is clear that well designed and tested PIM will need double the time and resources of a new SPM course. Preparing a Companion Study Guide for an existing textbook takes only a fraction of the time for preparing a PI course of the same length.
Before starting to write PI or SPM, we have to ask: Do we have the people and the time and the  resources to finish the job? On the other hand, when we use a textbook which has to be bought from the bookshop we have to ask: how expensive is it? Would it be cheaper in the long run to produce our own materials?

The decision as to which format to use in which course is a matter of discussion between the author and the director of the TEE programme. Usually the decision will be between SPM/Workbook and Study Guide to an existing Textbook. Therefore, we will deal in this course mainly with these two formats.

Note: Somebody wishing to use PI mode can also learn most of what he needs in this course, as most principles of PI are used as the starting point for instruction. More information can be obtained from the books quoted under ‘Additional reading’.

Questions for reflection and discussion

1.         From among the books used in the TEE programme in your church identify at least two of each of the following types: those which are produced in the format of PI, those which use SPM format, and those which use Textbook with Companion Study Guide.

2.         a.  Share what you have seen yourself or heard from others:  Which courses in the TEE programme known to you are liked best? (‘And’ deleted) From which ones do the learners profit least?
b.  Which type of course  has the best books, and which type has the least helpful books? Is there any relation between the format and the quality? Or is it a question of the teaching content, or of the readability of the book poor quality of typing and printing?

Assignment

            Think of two or three subjects for which you could write TEE materials. Discuss on one page which format you would suggest for these subjects, and give reasons.

Additional reading

Battle, Theological Education by Extension, pp. 38-41

Harrison, “Classification of Self-teaching Materials“, in: Thornton (ed.), Training TEE Leaders, pp. 80-83

Harms, “Understanding Programmed Instruction“, in: Thornton (ed.), Training TEE Leaders, pp. 84-86

Holland, Teaching Through T.E.E., pp. 15--20

For those who want to go deeper into Programming the following titles are recommended (see Bibliography at the end for publishers):

Winter, Ralph (ed.), Theological Education by Extension, 1969

Markle, Susan Meyer, Good Frames and Bad. A Grammar of Frame Writing, 2nd ed., 1969

Ward, Ted and Margaret, Programmed Instruction for Theological Education by Extension, 2nd ed., 1971

Pipe, Peter, Practical Programming, Huntington, 1977

Harms, Hartwig, How to Write TEE Materials Relevant to the Needs of Your Church. An introduction to writing self-instructional materials for TEE for the use of TEE Writers’ Workshops, revised 1987 (mimeographed)

UNIT  FIVE   -   T.E.E.  LEARNERS  ARE  ADULTS

Before we go on with the preparation for writing TEE materials, we should pause for a moment to recall for which kind of people we write. As the audience affects the way we speak, and the type of readers affects the ways an author writes a book, we also should think of our target group and their characteristics. Who the target group is has implications for the whole approach in TEE, and also for our writing of TEE materials.

The present and future co-workers in congregations whom we are going to train are adult persons. Usually their age is between 20 and 65. That implies that we cannot treat them like children in a school. Neither can we treat them like students at university or college. Most of them have a lot of life experience and have reached a far degree of maturity. They make their own living, have families to support and study only in their spare time. All these are factors which we have to keep in mind while we write TEE materials.

1.   Stages of adulthood

Personalities vary, their life situations vary and the process of their maturing varies. However, there are some similarities between the majority of people.

By the time a person has reached the age of 18, the time of adolescence usually has come  to an end and, at least physically, former teenagers have become adults. That does not mean that they have reached full maturity. They continue to grow in experience and judgment. Also as adults, they go through several stages in their personal development and in the challenges they have to meet. Normally, three main stages are distinguished. We will have TEE participants from all three stages, so we should briefly review them:

1.1       Young adulthood (age 19 to 30 years)
These are the formative years of life in which basic decisions have to be made and implemented: choice of profession and of a marriage partner. The foundations for the family and for the means of livelihood are laid. The young adult has to assume responsibility for his or her own future.

While at the outset the opinion of friends is very important, the young adult comes more and more to his or her own opinions and decisions. That includes their whole view of life, and also their religious convictions. While young people tend to be more radical and opposed to compromise in the first few years, they learn to become realistic and to accept what is possible.

Young adulthood is the time of greatest physical and mental strength: it is the best time to learn. But young adults tend to be critical towards the older generation. They don’t accept the words of others without proof - they want to probe the truth themselves.

1.2       Middle adulthood (age above 30 up to 60 years)

We could identify different stages in middle adulthood as well, but for our purposes we will consider this stage as a whole.  It is the time of productivity, of child raising and of securing a place in society. During the first part of it, family and career are most important; in the second part, involvement outside home - in church and society - takes a big share of time and strength.

At this time, people are independent minded and want their opinion to be respected. They will not easily change their religious affiliation any more. But they are willing not only to find out more about their faith and its consequences in life, but also to shoulder responsibility and pay the price for it.

Physical strength continues for quite some time until, sometime between 40 and 50, adults begin to realize that they have reached their peak and have to start to economize their energies. Learning abilities continue, though it takes a bit more time to memorize facts and figures. On the other hand, they have a lot of life experience which they can draw on.

1.3 Senior adulthood  (60 years and above)

Sometime between the age of 55 and 65 we find out that a new generation has grown up which wants to take responsibility and is able to do so, and that we had best withdraw into the background. At the same time, health often begins to deteriorate and it becomes obvious that the end of life draws nearer. More and more friends pass away; life becomes more wearisome.

Coping with decreasing strength, with increasing loneliness and approaching death are the main challenges of this age. But at the same time, senior adults still have a lot of possibilities and tasks: to pass on their experience and wisdom to the coming generations. They and their voice are still needed. Whether their advice is also wanted will depend on their ability to communicate with the younger generation in a positive way. They have to convince, rather than demand obedience. That is true now also for Africa, where older people are no longer automatically respected and heard as in former times.

Learning is slower now, but the ability to learn does not stop. Senior adults will profit a lot from educational programs, especially if they take their life experience as the starting point. It will be of great profit to both the seniors and the congregations if they are still challenged to participate in learning and service as long as their physical and mental condition allows it.

2.   Under which conditions do adults learn best?

Adults don’t learn like children whose curiosity is great and who accept the authority of a teacher without much doubt. Adults also don’t learn like adolescents who are critical of authorities but still can be convinced by reason and a teacher’s personality. Adults want to be respected as persons of dignity and because of their own life experience. They want to continue from where they are now and go into directions they themselves have decided upon.

In other words: in adult education we don’t deal with empty vessels which have to be filled, but with boxes which are already partially filled with a valuable load. Our task as educators is to help the participants to see the value of their previous experience, to assist them to make better use of it, to help them to find out what is still missing and let them choose themselves what they want to add.

There are several conditions which need to be fulfilled in order that adults learn well. We shall mention some of them here.  (The following seven points are adapted from a paper of Teferi Angose prepared for a TEE Writers Course : ‘Psychology of Adults, and its Implication on our Writing’, Addis Ababa 2000,  based on G. B. Peterson’s ‘The Christian Education of Adults’, pp.54-55.)

          1.  Adults learn best when they recognize that learning is part of their life. Learning is not an exceptional matter but continues through all of the adult life as there is always a desire to change and improve. Adults need to be aware that learning is an ongoing process.

          2.  Adults learn best when they are motivated. A sense of pride and achievement is the critical factor in motivating adults to learn. Adults learn partly because it gives them pleasure and helps them to feel better about themselves. On the other hand, they don’t like to admit failure and must be saved from feeling bad about mistakes.

          3.  Adults learn best when they realize that learning helps them to challenge the problems of life that they encounter. Younger students learn in order to qualify themselves for a job they take up later on.  Adults learn mainly in order to solve their immediate problems - be they social, political or spiritual. They are eager to see the effect which the learning will have on them or others in their vicinity.

          4.  Adults learn best when they want to learn. They are self-directed and make their own decisions. They want to be independent and in charge of their own life. They prefer to participate in a programme from which they can withdraw at any time.

          5.  Adults learn best when they know that this way of learning is effective. They want to be sure not to waste their time. They will accept a non-residential way of learning if it allows sharing of their experiences and so supports learning which builds upon what they know already. They need assurance that this informal way of learning is as effective as formal schools.

          6.  Adults learn best when the lesson is applicable. As said above, they want to solve their immediate problems. Application to life is a crucial and critical factor in the learning experience. Each lesson should contain something which can be applied in the lives of the adult learners.

          7.  Adults learn best when the lesson is at their level of understanding. If they feel that the lesson is beyond their academic standard they (add: “will”) drop it. The same thing happens if it is too easy. It ought to be on the right level.

These are conditions which apply to most adults. Apart from this, they are a very diverse group whose state of knowledge and experience is very diverse, depending on their life situation and former education. It is a challenge for the educator to bring people of different backgrounds together and make them enrich each other in a creative way.

3.   Implications for our writing of TEE materials

The conditions in which adults find themselves and under which they learn best as described above have their consequences for our approach in TEE. One of them is that it is vital that we respect adults as persons who not only study what the teachers present to them but who also contribute from their experience and insight. That is why we do not call them ‘students’ but prefer to call them ‘participants’ or ‘learners’. Of course, their contributions will be heard only in the group discussion, and it is one of the challenges of the discussion leader to encourage this process of sharing and not to lecture or to discourage participants’ contributions by always commenting on them. But the TEE materials which are studied before the group session will be preparation for this process and stimulate the learners to articulate their experience and opinion.

When writing TEE materials, we need to remember that our target group are adults, and that this implies a polite and encouraging approach:

          1.  Adults are self-directed. They want to do what they do on their own initiative and not be forced to do it.
That means for TEE writing: The learners must feel free to use their own insights and judgment and to add to their knowledge as they decide.  As much as possible the directives should be given as advice and not as command. When tasks are to be done, it is good to let the participants choose between alternatives.

          2.  Adults are rich in experience. That is reason enough to treat the learners with respect, and also to utilize this wealth.
While it is not possible to take up individual experiences in a TEE book, the learners can be encouraged to recall them and to reflect on them. By listing some possible situations and asking if they know such or similar experiences, we assist them to bring their own past into the learning process and to share their experiences in the group. If the teaching material is for learners who can express their thinking in writing, they may be asked to write a page or so on it.

          3.  Adults are concerned with their personal development. They are not so much interested in more knowledge than in continuing growth and improvement of their relationships. They may be afraid of radical changes, but are interested in developing their own potentials.
That means that our teaching must give them an opportunity to grow personally and spiritually. This implies both challenging their present views and exploring new possibilities together with them. That will not only enrich and strengthen their personality but also lead to greater proficiency both in their personal achievements and in their involvement in congregation and society.

          4.  Adults are focused on problem solving. They face a lot of problems and challenges in their lives, and they are looking for ways of coping with them.
Our writing must touch the current problems which the majority of our participants have to tackle so that they sense that the teaching is relevant. And it should open up ways which could help to either solve the problems, or to live with them. That does not mean that the teaching has to present ready-made solutions, but that it takes note of the challenges and that it allows the participants to think about them in new ways, to discuss with others and to reach a deeper understanding. This includes problems in daily life, in church and society.

          5.  Adults are concerned with direct application of the learning. They go through numerous experiences and are involved in many relationships.
Most of the participants are involved in congregational work or community service. What they learn must be applicable in their fields of involvement. Application takes place most effectively when the teaching is put to a test immediately; then it becomes a new experience of their own and stays with them. Therefore, we will include in our TEE writing some tasks which lead to application in the congregation. But we need to give the participants some freedom to find their own ways or alternatives if our suggestions are not acceptable to them.

Conclusion

It is true: the real teacher in TEE is the author of the self-study materials. And the writing will be good if it uses good teaching methods. But we need to remember: our learners are adults. They must neither be treated like school children nor like students in formal education. They learn of their own free will, they have their own agenda and ways of learning, and they want to be treated with due respect.

Questions for reflection and discussion

1.  How can we show our respect to the adult learners in our writing?

2.   In which way can the experiences of the learners be integrated into the teaching?

3.   Do you agree that adults are concerned with their personal development?
      Give reasons!       

Assignment

List some of the problems and challenges which your TEE learners face and which ought to be touched in the TEE materials or discussions.

Additional reading

More information on adult psychology in:

Mekane Yesus Seminary TEE Diploma Programme, Christian Education, rev. ed., pp. 201-207

Peterson, The Christian Education of Adults, 1984

Wilhoit, C. J. and O. K. Gangel, The Christian Educator’s Handbook to Spiritual Formation, 1993

Snook, Developing Leadership Through Theological Education by Extension, 1992

Batlle, Theological Education by Extension, pp.24-28

Thornton (ed..), Training T.E.E. Leaders, pp. 17-24

            Kinsler and Emery (ed.), Opting for Change, p. 73

UNIT  SIX   -   SELECTING  THE  SUBJECTS

‘Subject’ means here: the field and theme of a course which is being studied in one or two or three months or more.  We have only a limited time for our whole TEE programme. The learners can squeeze in the necessary time for learning only for a few months or years, and we need to make sure that we offer the courses which they need most. How do we find out which ones they need most urgently? That question is the topic of this unit which is, in fact, also a brief introduction to the design of a curriculum. At the same time it is a reminder to all authors that they are not meant to write about something which is of interest to themselves, but rather about that which will meet the needs and expectations of their target group.

1.   Which subjects should be included in a TEE programme?

We can afford only to write about subjects which we know are needed and wanted. Let us remember that the TEE programme is meant to train leaders and co-workers for the church, especially for the local congregations. They are the main group for whom we write. They need the agreement of the congregational leaders both for the practical part of their studies and for their future ministry which is possible only if the congregational leaders (elders and pastors) co-operate. The whole programme needs the active support of the church administration and leadership as it involves trained personnel and considerable finances. So there are three groups of persons who need to be convinced that they benefit by our courses:

• the learners whom we want to be better ministers and co-workers in their congregations;

• the leaders of the local congregations who are to give room to the ministry of the TEE participants;

• the church leaders whose support is needed for the whole programme.

To get their interest, co-operation and support, we have to try to find out which subjects will be helpful and important to these three groups. It is not sufficient that we and our colleagues think a subject is important for our learners. The future participants have to be of that opinion too, and local as well as denominational church leaders will have to agree.

Once we have determined which subjects are most necessary and wanted, we will put them together in a programme. This programme is called a ‘curriculum’, and it serves as a guideline for the whole course. The curriculum will be set up before any course is written. It helps us to see which other subjects will be taught, and prevents us from repeating topics which are being taught in another course. Therefore, before starting to write any course, we will need to look at the curriculum where it exists, or set up a curriculum for the total training where there is none.

2.   How can we find out which subjects are wanted and needed?

There is only one way to find out what people want and need: by talking to persons who are representative of the three groups just mentioned.

2.1       First of all we talk to some people whom we consider to be typical of future participants to find out their needs and wants.

If it is a new TEE programme, we could ask some adults who have shown interest in such training. If we plan to revise existing TEE courses, we can talk to some present or former TEE participants. In either case, their opinions are important. Let us remember that our learners are adults, and they must feel that courses are relevant for their lives and service. Otherwise they will soon stop coming.

In order to arouse their interest and keep it, we have to make sure that

¤  the learners will profit by the course in the areas of their faith and personal maturity (their BEING);

¤  the course will be useful for their life and service (their DOING);

¤  the teaching contains information new to the participants and increases their understanding of faith and the Bible (their KNOWING);

¤  the teaching addresses their special situation or CONTEXT;

¤  the course provides answers for some of the expressed and FELT NEEDS of the participants;

¤  the course will tackle some of the DEEP NEEDS of the participants which they may not be aware of at the moment.

2.2       Secondly, we will talk to congregation leaders to find out the needs of the local congregations.

We may think we know the situation and needs of the congregations. We certainly know that of our own congregation and in the wider surrounding. But do we know all? And do we know the viewpoints of others - of elders, pastors, evangelists, preachers, active members? It would be to our advantage if we inquire from as many involved persons as possible - be it in casual discussions, or it in formal sessions. Such inquiries have a very important advantage: they make the congregation leaders aware of the programme which is in preparation. If they are asked and their contribution is valued as important they will also later give better support to the TEE programme.

 2.3      Finally we will talk to church leaders to get their opinion and assure the support of the church bodies as this is critical to our TEE work.

Church leaders may have a good grasp of the problems and needs of the congregations and give us good hints for our plans. But even if they are preoccupied with other matters it is not only worthwhile but also essential to talk to them in order to give them the assurance that they are involved, their advice is wanted, and they have influence also on our TEE work. Their support and agreement is essential, as without it our work will be much more difficult if not impossible.

Contacts and discussions on these three levels will help us to find out which subjects are needed most in our TEE programme.

3.   How to narrow down wishes and expectations?

Actually, our research as outlined in the previous section may not give a clear picture. Feedback from the different groups we have interviewed may differ widely, with agreement in some areas and differences of opinion in others. We may see clearly which subjects have high priority, and which ones are desirable for all or most of the people whom we have asked. In other points there may be quite diverse opinions, and we have to come to a final decision about the priorities in other ways. How to go about that?

After summarizing the different suggestions, wishes and expectations of the people to whom we talked, we will make our own proposal. It is best to do this in writing, in order not to miss important points.

Then start your own exploration:•  by consulting with experts;•  by researching books on the topics under consideration;•  by discussing with your TEE colleagues.